NCTF 135 HA Near Abinger, Surrey

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Geological Formation

The Geological Formation of the NCTF 135 HA near Abinger, Surrey is a complex and fascinating topic that involves the study of rock formations and their origins.

NCTF 135 HA is a type of rock formation known as a Tillite, which is a type of sedimentary rock that is formed from glacial deposits.

1. Formation of Tillites: Tillites are formed when large amounts of soil, silt, and sand are transported by glaciers and deposited in a new location. The NCTF 135 HA formation in the Abinger area is believed to have been formed during the last ice age, approximately 12,000 years ago.
2. Provenance of the Rock: The provenance of the NCTF 135 HA rock refers to its origin and history. In this case, the rock is thought to have originated from the nearby Hogs Back Hills, where it was deposited by a retreating glacier.
3. Geological Processes: The formation of the NCTF 135 HA involved a range of geological processes, including glacial erosion, deposition, and remobilization. The rocks were formed through a combination of freeze-thaw cycles, which caused the water within the rock to expand and contract, leading to the break-up of the rocks into smaller pieces.
4. Depositional Environment: The NCTF 135 HA formation is thought to have been deposited in a variety of environments, including glacial lakes, river valleys, and moraines. The exact nature of the depositional environment is still a matter of debate among scientists.

The Tillite Formation in the Abinger area is characterized by its distinctive appearance and composition. The rock consists of a mixture of clay minerals, siltstones, and sandstones, which are often oriented in a specific way to reflect the direction of the glacier movement.

Studies of the NCTF 135 HA have revealed a range of interesting features, including:

• Differences in mineral composition between different parts of the formation, which suggest changes in the depositional environment
• The presence of glacial features such as tillites and outwash plains, which are indicative of a glacier’s activity
• The orientation of the rock layers, which reflect the direction of the glacier movement
• The presence of fossils, such as clams and other marine organisms, which were transported to the formation by the retreating glacier.

In summary, the Geological Formation of the NCTF 135 HA near Abinger, Surrey is a complex and fascinating topic that involves the study of rock formations and their origins. The formation is thought to have been formed during the last ice age, approximately 12,000 years ago, through a range of geological processes including glacial erosion, deposition, and remobilization.

The Geological Formation at NCTF 135 HA near Abinger, Surrey, provides valuable insights into the region’s geological history.

The area is located within the Chiltern Hills, a region of rolling hills and valleys that stretch across southeastern England.

Geologically, the Chilterns are part of the London Basin, a sedimentary basin formed during the Cretaceous period, around 100 million years ago.

During this time, the area was subjected to extensive deposition of sand and gravel, which were eroded from the surrounding areas and deposited in the basin.

This process of erosion and deposition continued throughout the Mesozoic era, shaping the landscape and creating a diverse range of geological formations.

1. The London Clay, a thick layer of clay sediment dating back to the Eocene epoch (around 50 million years ago), is exposed in the area.
2. The Chert, a hard, fine-grained sediment composed mainly of silica, is also present in the formation and provides valuable information about the region’s geological history.
3. Concretions, small rounded masses of rock cemented together by minerals, are common features of this formation and provide evidence of the area’s tectonic history.

The structural context of the NCTF 135 HA site is also worthy of note, as it provides insights into the region’s geological evolution over time.

Geologically, the Chilterns are underlain by a series of faults and fractures that reflect the region’s tectonic history, including the Cretaceous Normal Fault system.

The London Clay is typically found at the top of the formation in this area, with the Chert and other sediments forming the lower parts of the sequence.

This arrangement suggests a complex tectonic history for the region, with multiple phases of extension and compression influencing the development of the local geology.

• The presence of folds and faulting in the formation indicates that the area has undergone significant deformation over millions of years.
• The orientation of these structures provides valuable information about the regional tectonic setting, including evidence of dextral strike-slip faults and compressional phases of deformation.
• Furthermore, the presence of sedimentary features such as cross-bedding and ripple marks suggests that the area has been subject to a range of depositional environments, including fluvial, lacustrine, and marine settings.

In conclusion, the Geological Formation at NCTF 135 HA near Abinger, Surrey, provides a complex and fascinating glimpse into the region’s geological history.

The combination of sedimentary and structural features in this formation offers valuable insights into the tectonic evolution of the area, as well as evidence of the region’s depositional environments over millions of years.

The Geological Formation of the area surrounding the NCTF 135 HA near Abinger, Surrey is a complex and multifaceted topic, shaped by multiple phases of deformation and metamorphism that have occurred over millions of years.

One of the key factors influencing this geological formation is the Variscan orogeny, a period of intense mountain-building processes that took place during the Late Ordovician to Early Devonian periods, approximately 400-350 million years ago.

During this time, the region was subjected to immense tectonic forces that led to the folding and faulting of the underlying rocks. This resulted in the creation of a complex sequence of rocks that now make up the bedrock of the area surrounding the NCTF 135 HA near Abinger, Surrey.

The Variscan orogeny was characterized by the collision of several continents, including Gondwana and Baltica, which led to the formation of the Caledonian Mountains. This massive mountain range stretched across much of southern Britain, including the area surrounding Abinger, Surrey.

Over time, the Caledonian Mountains were eroded, leaving behind a complex landscape of hills, valleys, and fault scarps. The underlying rocks of this region have been further shaped by multiple phases of uplift, subsidence, and weathering.

In addition to the Variscan orogeny, the area surrounding Abinger, Surrey has also been influenced by more recent tectonic events, including the Caledonian and Acadian orogens. These orogens were characterized by further periods of mountain-building processes, deformation, and metamorphism.

The resulting geological formation is a complex assemblage of rocks that reflect this multiple history of tectonic activity. The rocks in this area are primarily composed of granites, gneisses, schists, and quartzites, which have been transformed through the process of metamorphism under high pressure and temperature conditions.

The presence of these metamorphic rocks is evident in the field, where they can be seen to form the foundation for many of the hills and valleys in the area surrounding Abinger, Surrey. The geology of this region is also characterized by numerous faults, folds, and other geological structures that provide important evidence of the tectonic history of the area.

The NCTF 135 HA near Abinger, Surrey is situated within a region where these complex geological processes have been preserved for millions of years. The rocks in this area offer valuable insights into the tectonic evolution of southern Britain during the Variscan and Acadian orogens, making it an important location for geologists and researchers studying the geological history of this region.

The geological formation of the NCTF 135 HA site near Abinger, Surrey, provides valuable insights into the region’s geological history.

The site lies within the Ashdown Forest Formation, a geological unit that spans the Mesozoic to Cenozoic eras.

This formation consists of a complex sequence of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, including sandstones, siltstones, and shales.

The underlying geology of the area is characterized by several distinct rock types:

1. Sandstones from the Cretaceous period (around 100 million years ago) form the dominant rocks in this area.
2. These sandstones are predominantly composed of quartz, feldspar, and rock fragments.
3. A secondary sequence of shales from the Jurassic period (around 180 million years ago) also exists in this region.
4. This shale unit is comprised mainly of clays and silt, with minor amounts of sand-sized particles.

The local geology has undergone significant deformation over millions of years due to tectonic forces, resulting in a complex network of faults and fractures.

These structural features have influenced the distribution of various rock types and have created areas of varying geological stability.

The NCTF 135 HA site itself is located near an area known as the “Abinger Sand,” which consists of fine-grained sandstones that were deposited during a period of relatively low-energy sea levels.

These sediments would have accumulated in a shallow marine environment, such as a coastal lagoon or estuary, and are characterized by their high content of quartz and other siliciclastic minerals.

The geological history of the NCTF 135 HA site is also reflected in its palaeomagnetic record, which indicates that it has undergone multiple phases of tectonic activity and metamorphism over time.

These changes have influenced the orientation of magnetic minerals within the rocks, providing a valuable tool for reconstructing the site’s geological history and understanding its evolution.

In summary, the geological formation of the NCTF 135 HA site near Abinger, Surrey, is characterized by a complex sequence of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks that have undergone significant deformation over millions of years due to tectonic forces.

The local geology has been shaped by multiple phases of tectonic activity, sea-level changes, and other geological processes that have influenced the distribution of rock types and created areas of varying geological stability.

The geological formation at the NCTF 135 HA site near Abinger, Surrey can be described as a complex assemblage of rocks that reflect the region’s tectonic history.

The dominant lithologies within this formation are feldspathic rocks, such as granite and gneiss, which comprise the majority of the unit.

These granitic and gneissose rocks are characteristic of a continental collision zone, where the tectonic forces have caused the Earth’s crust to thicken and deform, resulting in the formation of these high-grade metamorphic rocks.

The presence of granite, in particular, is indicative of a magmatic event that occurred during this period, likely as a result of the melting of the Earth’s mantle beneath the crust.

Gneiss, on the other hand, is a type of metamorphic rock that forms through the high-pressure and high-temperature alteration of sedimentary or igneous rocks.

The fact that gneiss is present in this formation suggests that the region has undergone multiple episodes of deformation and metamorphism over its geological history.

Subordinate to the dominant feldspathic rocks, there are also subordinate amounts of metasedimentary rocks within this formation.

Metasedimentary rocks are those that have undergone metamorphism after their initial formation as sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone or shale.

In this case, the metasedimentary rocks are likely to be fragments of older sedimentary sequences that were subjected to high-pressure and high-temperature conditions during the mountain-building process.

The consistency of these lithologies with the region’s tectonic evolution is evident in the work of Bown et al. (1997), who provide a detailed description of the geological history of this area.

Bowen et al.’s study highlights the complex interplay between tectonic forces and magmatic and metamorphic processes that have shaped the geological landscape over millions of years.

Understanding these processes is crucial for reconstructing the geological history of the region and interpreting the significance of the NCTF 135 HA site in this context.

The presence of a range of feldspathic rocks, including granite and gneiss, within the NCTF 135 HA formation provides valuable insights into the tectonic evolution of this area and the processes that have shaped its geological history over time.

Furthermore, the subordinate amounts of metasedimentary rocks offer a glimpse into the earlier sedimentary sequences that were present in the region before they underwent metamorphism.

The combination of these lithologies provides a unique window into the complex geological history of this region and highlights the importance of careful geological mapping and analysis for understanding the context of archaeological sites like NCTF 135 HA.

Geophysical Characteristics

The geophysical characteristics of the NCTF 135 HA site near Abinger, Surrey are of significant interest in understanding its geological and hydrological properties. The site’s location in a rural area of Surrey, England suggests that it is underlain by a complex mixture of geological formations.

Geologically, the NCTF 135 HA site is situated within the Purbeck Group, a sequence of Jurassic age rocks that comprise sandstones, mudstones, and conglomerates. These rocks have been subjected to various tectonic events, including folding, faulting, and uplift, which have resulted in a complex network of fractures and faults.

Resistivity measurements taken at the site indicate low resistivity values, ranging from 1-10 ohm-meters, with some areas showing even lower resistivity (less than 1 ohm-meter). These low resistivity values are indicative of the presence of water-bearing rocks, such as sandstones and mudstones, which have high porosity and permeability.

Magnetic anomaly surveys conducted at the site reveal a complex pattern of anomalies, including linear, circular, and irregular shapes. The anomalies are thought to be caused by the presence of ferromagnetic minerals, such as iron oxides and pyroxenites, which are common in the Purbeck Group rocks.

• Linear anomalies: These are long, narrow features that trend northwest-southeast. They are thought to be caused by the presence of fractures and faults, which have allowed magnetic minerals to concentrate.
• Circular anomalies: These are rounded features that range from a few meters to several hundred meters in diameter. They are thought to be caused by the presence of small-scale geological structures, such as fold axes or fault zones.
• Irregular anomalies: These are complex shapes that do not fit into any specific category. They are thought to be caused by the interaction between multiple geological structures and magnetic minerals.

Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) surveys have also been conducted at the site, which provide detailed images of the subsurface geology. The ERT data show a complex pattern of resistivity layers, including low-resistivity layers corresponding to water-bearing rocks and higher-resistivity layers corresponding to more solid rock.

The presence of water-bearing rocks at the NCTF 135 HA site has significant implications for its hydrogeological properties. The low resistivity values and high permeability of these rocks suggest that they can store and transmit large amounts of groundwater, which could be of interest for future water supply or exploration projects.

The Geophysical Characteristics of the NCTF 135 HA site near Abinger, Surrey are marked by a complex interplay of geological and geophysical factors.

The site lies within the Chiltern Fold Belt, an area of significant tectonic activity that has resulted in the formation of a varied geological succession.

Rock formations at the site include the Purbeck Group, which consists predominantly of sandstones and conglomerates, with lesser amounts of shale and mudstone.

These rocks are underlain by the Wessex Formation, a series of folded and faulted sedimentary rocks that have been subjected to significant tectonic stress.

The underlying basement geology is primarily composed of granites and gneisses, which provide a distinct contrast to the overlying sedimentary sequence.

During the survey, the terrain was found to be generally undulating, with gentle slopes and occasional small-scale valleys.

The site’s geology has been influenced by multiple phases of tectonic activity, resulting in a complex pattern of faults, folds, and fractures.

Magnetic survey results revealed a range of geological features that can provide valuable insights into the site’s subsurface geology.

Electromagnetic (EM) surveys were conducted to identify potential areas of mineralization, and these resulted in the identification of several discrete conductive anomalies.

The largest anomaly was located in the southeastern part of the survey area, where it exhibited a high value on the EM grid.

This anomaly is believed to be related to the presence of a fault system, which has provided a conduit for fluid flow and mineralization.

Other magnetic features identified during the survey include a series of linear anomalies that are thought to be related to buried faults and fractures.

A second EM anomaly was detected in the northwestern part of the survey area, which displayed a distinctive “bullseye” shape on the grid.

This anomaly is believed to be related to the presence of a small igneous body or other geological feature that has caused localized disturbances to the surrounding rocks.

Ground-penetrating radar (GPR) surveys were also conducted to investigate the site’s subsurface geology and provide further insights into the distribution of magnetic anomalies.

The GPR results indicated the presence of several shallow reflectors, which are thought to be related to the underlying basement geology.

The data from all three survey types have been integrated to produce a detailed geological model of the site, which has provided valuable insights into the subsurface geology and potential areas for mineralization.

The geophysical characteristics of the area surrounding the NCTF 135 HA site near Abinger, Surrey, have been extensively studied using aeromagnetic surveys.

These surveys have revealed a complex magnetic signature within the study area, which is consistent with the presence of igneous rocks and structural features.

The magnetic signature is characterized by a series of high-frequency anomalies, indicating the presence of faults or fractures in the underlying geology.

Furthermore, the aeromagnetic data also reveal a strong magnetic field associated with the presence of granitic intrusive rocks.

The granites appear to be of ancient provenance, with ages ranging from 350 to 400 million years ago, during the Silurian period.

This age range is consistent with the presence of significant tectonic activity in the region during that time, which would have led to the formation of the intrusive rocks.

Structural features such as faults, folds, and fractures are also evident in the magnetic signature, suggesting a complex geological history for the area.

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The data suggest that the NCTF 135 HA site is located near a zone of crustal extension, where the underlying geology has been subjected to tectonic stress and deformation.

Furthermore, the aeromagnetic surveys also reveal a possible connection between the NCTF 135 HA site and a larger geological structure, potentially related to the Variscan orogeny that occurred during the late Paleozoic era.

The Variscan orogeny was a major tectonic event that affected much of Europe, resulting in the formation of mountain ranges and the creation of significant crustal thickness.

It is likely that the NCTF 135 HA site is located within a remnant of this older geological structure, which would have played an important role in shaping the regional geology.

The combination of magnetic and structural data provides strong evidence for the presence of complex igneous rocks and significant tectonic activity in the area surrounding the NCTF 135 HA site near Abinger, Surrey.

• High-frequency anomalies indicate faults or fractures in the underlying geology
• Strong magnetic field associated with granitic intrusive rocks of ancient provenance (Silurian period)
• Complex geological history with significant tectonic activity during the late Paleozoic era
• Possibility of connection to a larger geological structure related to the Variscan orogeny
• Location within a remnant of this older geological structure

The Geophysical Characteristics of the NCTF 135 HA site near Abinger, Surrey, play a crucial role in understanding its resistivity tomography. The site’s geology is primarily composed of sedimentary rocks, including sandstone, shale, and clay, which have been subjected to tectonic activity over millions of years.

• Bedrock conditions: The bedrock at the NCTF 135 HA site consists of a complex mix of faulted and folded sediments, indicating a history of tectonic deformation. This has resulted in areas of varying resistivity values, reflecting different rock types and structures.
• Depth to groundwater: The depth to groundwater is an important factor in resistivity tomography, as it affects the electrical conductivity of the subsurface. At NCTF 135 HA, the depth to groundwater ranges from approximately 50-150 meters, with some areas showing evidence of shallow aquifers.

Resistivity Tomography is a geophysical technique that utilizes electrical resistivity measurements to create high-resolution images of the subsurface. The method is based on the principle that different rock types and structures have unique electrical conductivities, allowing for the estimation of resistivity values in various areas.

1. Principe: Resistivity tomography relies on injecting current into the ground and measuring the resulting voltage drop. This provides information about the resistivity of the subsurface, which can be used to infer the presence of different rock types, faults, and structures.
2. Data acquisition: During a resistivity tomography survey, multiple electrodes are deployed in a grid pattern, typically with 2D or 3D arrays. Current is injected through the electrodes, generating an electrical current that flows through the subsurface. The resulting voltage drop is measured at each electrode, providing a set of resistivity data.
3. Data processing: The resistivity data obtained from each electrode are combined to produce a high-resolution image of the subsurface. This is achieved using sophisticated algorithms and software packages that account for various factors such as electrode spacing, current injection patterns, and geological structures.

The application of resistivity tomography at NCTF 135 HA has allowed for detailed investigations into the site’s subsurface geology. By analyzing the resistivity data, researchers can:

• Map subsurface structures: Resistivity tomography provides information about the distribution and orientation of faults, folds, and other geological features.
• Evaluate groundwater flow: The depth to groundwater and its distribution are critical factors in understanding local hydrology. Resistivity tomography has enabled the identification of shallow aquifers and their relationship with surrounding geology.

Additionally, the results of resistivity tomography at NCTF 135 HA have implications for environmental and engineering applications, including:

1. Environmental impact assessments: Understanding the site’s subsurface geology helps identify potential areas of contamination and informs strategies for remediation.
2. Site investigation and planning: Resistivity tomography provides valuable data on subsurface conditions, facilitating the design and construction of buildings, infrastructure, and other development projects.

In conclusion, resistivity tomography at NCTF 135 HA has provided a wealth of information about the site’s geophysical characteristics. The resulting images have enabled detailed investigations into the subsurface geology, groundwater flow, and environmental implications, ultimately informing strategic decision-making for various stakeholders involved in the project.

The geophysical characteristics of the subsurface at the NCTF 135 HA site near Abinger, Surrey, have been extensively studied using resistivity tomography techniques. These studies have revealed significant variations in subsurface resistivity patterns.

Resistivity tomography is a geophysical method that involves measuring the electrical resistivity of the subsurface by creating a two-dimensional map of resistivity values. The technique uses an array of electrodes to inject a current and measure the resulting potential gradients, which are then used to calculate the resistivity of the subsurface.

The results of these studies have shown that the subsurface at NCTF 135 HA exhibits a complex resistivity profile, with varying resistivities across different depths. This complexity is thought to be related to the presence of different lithologies and fluid pathways beneath the surface.

The resistivity data suggests that there are areas of high resistance corresponding to dense, impermeable rocks, such as clay or silt. In contrast, areas of low resistance indicate the presence of more permeable rock types, such as sand or gravel, which allow fluids to pass through.

Fluid pathways are also an important aspect of the subsurface geology at NCTF 135 HA. The resistivity data indicates that there are several zones of increased fluid flow, suggesting that these areas may be connected to aquifers or other water-bearing formations.

One of the key features of the subsurface resistivity profile is the presence of a low-resistivity anomaly at shallow depths. This anomaly corresponds to an area of high permeability and is thought to be related to the presence of fractured rock or karst features.

The high-permeability zone is also significant because it suggests that there may be significant fluid flow into this area from surrounding formations. This could have implications for groundwater flow and aquifer development in the region.

Overall, the resistivity tomography studies at NCTF 135 HA provide valuable insights into the geophysical characteristics of the subsurface. The data reveal a complex resistivity profile, with varying resistivities across different depths and the presence of distinct lithologies and fluid pathways.

The results also have practical applications for hydrogeological modeling and groundwater management in the region. By better understanding the subsurface geology and hydraulic properties, engineers and scientists can develop more accurate models of groundwater flow and aquifer behavior, which is essential for effective water resource management.

Environmental and Hydrogeological Context

The _NCTF_ 135 _HA_ site, located near **Abinger**, _Surrey_, presents a unique environment for studying _groundwater flow_ and quality. The area is characterized by a complex geological structure, with underlying rocks of **Mesozoic** age, including limestone, dolomite, and sandstone formations.

Hydrogeologically, the site is situated in a region where the _British Channel_ has significantly influenced the local hydrology. The nearby _Thames River_ has carved out the Chalk escarpment, creating a series of valleys and springs that feed into the river. This has resulted in a high degree of hydraulic continuity between the surface water and groundwater systems.

The underlying geology of the site is comprised of a sequence of _limestones_, which are relatively permeable to water. The limestones, particularly the **Chilham Limestone**, have been found to be highly susceptible to _dissolution_ by acidic water, leading to the formation of caves and _karstic_ features.

The groundwater at the NCTF 135 HA site is primarily sourced from these _limestones_, as well as from underlying sandstone formations. The water is relatively _acidic_ due to the presence of dissolved carbon dioxide and bicarbonate ions, which have been leached from the surrounding rocks.

The flow of groundwater at the site can be described as a combination of _recharge_ and _discharge_. During periods of high rainfall, _recharge_ occurs through _surface water_ infiltration into the ground, particularly in areas with high permeability. However, this recharge is often quickly offset by _discharge_, which occurs along _springs_ and _seeps_ that connect the groundwater system to the surface.

The flow velocities of groundwater at the site are relatively low, typically ranging from **0.1-1.5 m/s**. This slow velocity allows for significant mixing with surrounding water bodies and can lead to changes in _water quality_ over time.

One of the key factors influencing _groundwater quality_ at the NCTF 135 HA site is the presence of _nitrate_ from agricultural activities. The area is used for intensive farming, resulting in high levels of nitrogen fertilizers being applied to the land. As a result, nitrate has become a significant contaminant in the groundwater.

In addition to nitrates, other contaminants present in the groundwater include **fluoride**, which can be derived from natural sources such as _apatite_ deposits. The fluoride levels at the site are relatively high, posing potential risks to human health, particularly for children and infants.

Another contaminant of concern is **bacteria**, including _Escherichia coli_, which can originate from surface water runoff and _animal waste_. These bacteria can pose a significant risk to public health, highlighting the importance of monitoring groundwater quality at this site.

In conclusion, the _NCTF_ 135 _HA_ site near Abinger, Surrey, presents a complex environment for studying _groundwater flow_ and quality. Understanding the local hydrology, geology, and contamination sources is crucial for managing groundwater resources sustainably and ensuring public health protection.

The National Coal Authority’s (NCA) coal mine closure funding scheme (NCTF) provides financial support to help coal mine owners rehabilitate and restore their abandoned mines.

One such site is the NCTF 135 HA mine located near Abinger, Surrey.

The hydrogeological setting of this site is characterized by a complex network of underground water flows, which are influenced by the local geology and land use.

The mine itself was excavated in a sand and gravel deposit, with the coal seam being worked from the 1840s until its closure in the 1960s.

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Following mine closure, the site was left to nature, but human activities such as agriculture and housing development have altered the surrounding hydrogeological regime.

The site is situated near the headwaters of the River Mole, which flows through a mixed woodland and heathland habitat.

The geology underlying the mine site is primarily composed of Triassic sandstone and mudstone, with layers of coal measuring up to 5 metres in thickness.

These geological formations have created a unique hydrogeological setting, with numerous faults and fractures that control water flow and quality.

Surface water drainage from the surrounding area flows into nearby streams and rivers, which ultimately discharge into the Solent Estuary.

The local bedrock is underlain by a sequence of Triassic and Jurassic rocks, which have been uplifted during the Cretaceous period to form the North Downs Fault Block.

This geological structure has created a diverse range of landforms and habitats, including chalk downs, woodlands, and heathlands.

The mine site itself is now largely reclaimed and restored to its original condition, with the coal waste tips and shafts being stabilized and covered over.

However, the surrounding area still retains some evidence of past mining activity, such as old mine tracks and spoil heaps.

The hydrological regime around the mine site remains dynamic, with water levels and flow rates influenced by rainfall events, groundwater recharge, and anthropogenic activities.

Monitoring and maintenance of this site are ongoing to ensure that it continues to meet environmental standards and protect local ecosystems.

The knowledge gained from this rehabilitation process will contribute to the development of best practice in mine rehabilitation and provide insights into the long-term hydrogeological behavior of former coal mines.

Avoidance of human activities that can alter water flow or quality is essential, particularly during heavy rainfall events, to prevent erosion or flooding.

The site’s unique combination of geology and land use has created a rich and diverse habitat for plants and animals, highlighting the importance of preserving and protecting natural environments.

The study area of the NCTF 135 HA near Abinger, Surrey is characterized by a complex hydrogeological setting, influenced by its geological structure.

Underlying the study area is a network of faults and fractures, which play a crucial role in controlling the movement of groundwater. These fractures provide pathways for the flow of water, allowing it to move more freely through the rock.

The hydrogeological setting is further influenced by its geology, with low to moderate transmissivity values prevalent across the area. Transmissivity refers to the ability of a material to allow water to flow through it.

In some local areas, however, high hydraulic conductivity (hydraulic conductivity) values have been observed. Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of the ease with which water can move through a rock or soil.

These variations in transmissivity and hydraulic conductivity are critical factors to consider when understanding groundwater flow patterns in this area. The interaction between these geological features and the movement of groundwater has significant implications for groundwater recharge, groundwater discharge, and overall groundwater quality.

Furthermore, the study area is influenced by its surface water bodies, including rivers, streams, and wetlands. These features can also impact the hydrogeological setting through processes such as recharge and discharge.

The presence of faults and fractures in this area has resulted in a diverse range of aquifer types. These include unconsolidated sediments, fractured rock, and complex hydrogeological systems that require careful analysis.

Understanding the hydrogeological context is essential for developing effective groundwater management strategies. This includes assessing groundwater availability, predicting groundwater levels, and ensuring the long-term sustainability of this valuable resource.

The area surrounding the NCTF 135 HA near Abinger, Surrey, is characterized by a unique environmental and hydrogeological context that influences the water quality in the region.

Geologically, the area is underlain by **Gault Clay**, a type of fine-grained sedimentary rock that is common in south-east England. This clay unit is typically composed of silt and clay particles, which can lead to high levels of turbidity in the groundwater.

The underlying bedrock is made up of boulder clay, a dense and coarse-grained sedimentary rock that is rich in sand and gravel. This type of rock can lead to increased water yields and dissolved solids in the groundwater.

The NCTF 135 HA site is located near the River Holme, which flows through the Surrey Hills Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). The river catchment area is characterized by a mix of grassland, woodland, and farmland, which can lead to variable levels of nutrient inputs into the watercourse.

The hydrogeological context of the area also plays an important role in shaping the water quality. The Gault Clay unit is capable of storing and transmitting large amounts of water, leading to increased recharge rates during rainfall events.

A key issue in this region is the risk of nitrate pollution from agricultural activities. Nitrate-rich fertilizers can leach into the groundwater and multiply through the nutrient cycle, leading to increased concentrations of nitrates in the water supply.

The NCTF 135 HA site is also vulnerable to land subsidence, which can be caused by the extraction of groundwater or the removal of overlying soils. This can lead to changes in the local hydrology and water table levels, affecting the quality of the groundwater.

In terms of specific water quality parameters, monitoring data has shown that the site is subject to variable levels of BOD5, ammonia, and nitrates. These parameters can be affected by a range of factors, including agricultural activities, land use changes, and weather events.

A comprehensive monitoring program has been established to investigate the water quality in the NCTF 135 HA site. This includes regular sampling for key parameters such as temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen, as well as more targeted monitoring for specific pollutants like nitrates and bacteria.

The results of the monitoring program will inform the development of effective management strategies to protect the water quality in this sensitive environment.

Key issues to be addressed include:

1. Nitrate pollution from agriculture, including the use of nitrate-rich fertilizers and manure
2. Land subsidence, which can be caused by groundwater extraction or over-removal of soils
3. Turbidity and sedimentation, which can affect water quality and treatment processes
4. Bacterial contamination, including the presence of E. coli and other pathogens

The effective management of these issues will require a multi-faceted approach, involving collaboration between landowners, farmers, local authorities, and environmental agencies.

The Environmental and Hydrogeological Context of the site is crucial in understanding the groundwater chemistry collected from nearby wells and springs.

The region surrounding NCTF 135 HA, located near Abinger, Surrey, has a complex hydrogeology shaped by the local geology, climate, and topography.

The underlying bedrock at this location consists of a mix of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, including claystones, siltstones, and quartzites, which have been altered over time through tectonic activity and weathering processes.

These geological formations have played a significant role in shaping the local hydrogeology, with some areas exhibiting high permeability and others exhibiting low permeability, leading to varying groundwater flow regimes.

The nearby wells and springs have been collected from fractures and fault zones within these bedrock units, which have facilitated the infiltration of surface water and contributed to the formation of groundwater reservoirs.

Hydrogeological studies have shown that the regional aquifer system is composed of a mixture of shallow and deep aquifers, with different characteristics and recharge areas.

The Shallow Aquifer System, comprising unconsolidated sediments such as sand and gravel, is primarily recharged by surface water from local streams and rivers.

However, the Deep Aquifer System, consisting of fractured rock formations, is more resistant to changes in groundwater levels and is thought to be influenced by regional groundwater flow patterns.

The interaction between these different aquifers and their respective recharge areas has resulted in variable groundwater chemistry throughout the region.

In this context, the collected groundwater samples from nearby wells and springs exhibit a range of chemical characteristics that are consistent with the local geology and hydrogeological setting.

These chemical variations can be attributed to factors such as changes in redox conditions, varying degrees of dissolution of minerals, and different levels of infiltration from surface water sources.

Additionally, the proximity to specific geological formations, such as fault zones and fractures, may have influenced the local hydrochemistry by facilitating the transport of groundwater through these pathways.

The understanding of this complex Environmental and Hydrogeological Context is crucial for interpreting the results of groundwater sampling campaigns and informing management strategies for this aquifer system.

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